Causality is the single most important force in science

Partially SupportedAustin Bradford Hill's criteria, such as strength of association and reproducibility, help define the probability that an association is causal.

Partially SupportedA dose-response relationship, where increased exposure correlates with a stronger outcome, supports causality.

Partially SupportedReproducibility of findings across multiple studies increases the likelihood that an observed association is causal.

Partially SupportedA hazard ratio of 2.9 suggests a higher likelihood of causality than a hazard ratio of 1.2.